Guide for Writing Papers

Prof. Frederick J. Murphy

College of the Holy Cross

Last Updated 2/24/08

General Observations

The following guide is not meant to be a complete guide on how to write a paper.  I assume that you have had some training in writing papers previously in high school and in other classes at Holy Cross.  I wrote this guide to address the most common problems I have encountered in reading student papers.  I do not claim that I know everything about writing, style, syntax, punctuation, and so on.  I am still learning, too!  I welcome your suggestions about how I can make the guide more accurate and helpful.

Students sometimes think it is “picky” when anyone but an English professor critiques their writing style, organization, syntax, punctuation, and so on.  But good writing is crucial to all fields.  Good writing indicates understanding, clear thinking, and the ability to communicate well.  Ideally, every paper you write at Holy Cross will help you to become better writers.  Papers in my courses will be judged on writing, as well as on content.

Before getting into my own comments, let me point you some other excellent online resources.

See the Holy Cross Writer’s Workshop aids: http://college.holycross.edu/academics/writers_workshop/.  This site has a good number of resources for student writing.

Other useful sites are the one at Princeton:

http://web.princeton.edu/sites/writing/Writing_Center/WCWritingResources.htm.

and the one at Harvard:

http://www.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewricntr/resources.html.

I strongly encourage you to use these resources to improve your writing.

Rewrite!  Proofread!

In this age of computers, there is not excuse for the first draft being the last draft.  It is practically impossible to write a really good paper without some revising, at least for most of us.  Students sometimes say to me, “I have written six pages of the paper already, and so I have only four more to write.”  This indicates that your main goal is to fill up ten pages, and that rather than constructing a smooth and coherent argument, you are just appending information in stages until you fill those ten pages.  This will result in a paper badly in need of organization, which does not develop an argument or an exposition effectively.

Organization

I think of papers in my courses as falling into two general categories.  One type has a thesis that must be proven.  The other type is more expository.  The comments in this section are especially relevant to the first type of paper, but most of them also apply to the second type.  Of course, most papers that are proving a thesis will contain a certain amount of exposition as well.

I prize clarity highly.  Do not let a desire to write in an interesting style prevent you from expressing yourself as clearly as possible.

Every paper should have a clear organization.  It should embody a logical argument or exposition in which each paragraph develops a point, one paragraph leads to another, and the whole leads to some logical conclusion.  Put most simply, the paper should have a beginning, a middle, and an end, where the beginning lets the reader know what the paper is about and what you are going to prove or explain, the middle does the proving or explaining, and the end wraps things up, showing what you have accomplished.  Styles of writing vary somewhat from discipline to discipline.  Although I expect that this guide will help you in most courses, professors in some fields may want you to do things slightly differently.

In biblical studies, it is most helpful to make clear at the beginning precisely what you are going to do and how you are going to do it.  In a paper that argues for a thesis, you must make that thesis clear at the beginning.  You can do it in the first paragraph if that is practical, or perhaps in the second if you need to use the first to supply a context for your study.  At times, trying to contextualize your thesis and state it in the first paragraph leads to long, complicated paragraphs that lose the reader right away.

I suggest a couple of models that can help you organize the middle of the paper.  The first model is the courtroom.  Picture yourself presenting a case to the jury.  You want to convince them of something, so you argue clearly, showing how your argument progresses logically, so that one point leads to the next and all of your points taken together prove your thesis or at least make it plausible.  Each step of the argument must be supported by evidence.  In biblical studies, the evidence will usually consist of primary texts, either from the Bible or from other ancient documents (or sometimes archeological evidence).  The second model is a class presentation.  Imagine that I have given you twenty minutes to present your topic to the class.  The class has some background in the subject matter, so they will be critical and ask good questions.  At the same time, you cannot assume that they know everything about your subject, so you need to explain key terms, supply necessary background, and so on.  Either of these two models implies that you must put forward your best argument, concentrating on what is important, and avoiding tangents that do not support your main line of  thought.

Do not jump from topic to topic or from point to point.  Although your argument may require you to treat something more than once in your paper, generally you should concentrate the discussion of a single topic in one place.  It is often confusing when you speak of a topic, drop it, and then return to it.

When treating primary sources, analyze, do not just paraphrase.  A certain amount of paraphrase may be necessary, but simply to repeat what texts say will not get you very far.  Do not simply use primary texts as “proof texts.”  You can quote the texts in your paper if you think that will help the reader to follow your thought.  Longer quotes should be reproduced in block form.

Your paper should have a clear conclusion that is based on your argument or exposition.

The argument of your paper may be more coherent if you write your first draft without worrying too much about acknowledging every citation as you write.  Rather, concentrate at first on coherence, logical flow, and analysis of evidence.  Then go back through the paper, indicating your dependence on secondary sources, rewriting and elaborating as necessary, and so on.  The result will be a paper that is more unified and whose thrust is clearer.  Of course, research papers must indicate their dependence on the work of others.  Use some accepted citation method to do so.

In general, remember that someone else must read your paper, and your progression of thought, though clear to you, must be made clear to the reader.  When rereading your paper, make sure that there is a logical progression that is clear and explicit.  When you change subjects or go on to another aspect of any subject, make sure that you supply a transition so that the reader knows how what you say relates to what you have just said.  Ideally, you end up with a paper in which each sentence flows from the previous one, and each paragraph flows from the previous one, and the end product is on in which the reader knows what you intended to do, how you set about doing it, and what your results were.

Students sometimes ask me whether I want you simply to present the thoughts of others or to say what you think.  I conceive of a research paper as a dialogue between you and your secondary sources.  The paper is your creation.  It is your argument.  Nonetheless, you make this argument in conversation with and reaction to the work of others.  As you investigate your subject, you learn from others.  As you make your argument, you will at times build on the works of others, at times disagree with them, and at times be independent of them.

It is permissible to “think out loud” on papers, as long as you indicate that you know you are doing so.  You should clarify which points you think are well supported by the evidence, which are less well supported, and which are your “educated guesses.”  Ideally, your more speculative points will build on what you know more securely.  I know, of course, that you are not experts in the field.  It is possible to admit on your papers that you do not know something, or that some other line of research that you had no time to pursue might help your point.

Style

Sentences.  Avoid run-on sentences.  Often, long sentences should be broken up into two or more sentences.  Avoid multiple dependent clauses and sentences broken up with numerous commas.  I have nothing against an elaborate, periodic style, but it is difficult to pull off successfully and maintain clarity unless you are a very accomplished write.  Remember, aim for clarity at all times.  On the hand, too many short sentences in a row makes your prose very choppy and a bit like a machine-gun.  Strive for a balance between the two extremes.

Paragraphs.  Do not write very long paragraphs.  They tend to lose the reader.  When a paragraph is growing long, ask yourself whether there is a logical point within it where you can break, to indicate to the reader a step forward.  Shorter paragraphs give the reader a chance to “breathe” a bit.  At the same time, if the paragraphs are too short, they will break up your thought and give the impression that your argument is too segmented and “choppy.”  Similarly, use long sentences sparingly.  I am not necessarily against all long sentences, but it takes skill to write one effectively.  You are usually better off to divide a long sentence into logical units.

“I” and “We.”  The use of “I” in a paper may be appropriate in some instances.  However, as a general rule it should be avoided.  When you use “I,” the impression is that you are simply giving personal opinion or trying to win the reader over through a less formal style.  Papers in this field are usually aiming at a more “objective” approach to the subject, which is more effectively conveyed by use of the third person.  However, I have nothing against the use of the first person plural (“we” and “us”), if you find that comfortable.  That gives the impression that you are engaged in research that is based on mutually agreed upon bodies of evidence and methods of analysis.

“I Feel.”  Although it may be defensible in some rare instances, it is better to avoid the use of the verb “feel.”  Usually when you say “I feel” you mean “I think.”  Generally your papers should be about what you think, based on the evidence and the use of your own intellect, rather than what you feel, that is, your emotions.  Also, “I feel” can be used to mask the attitude: “This is simply my own opinion, so it should not be challenged, since everyone’s opinion is valid.”  In your papers, that is not an acceptable approach.  Your task is to persuade, using evidence and reason.

Passive Voice.  I am not as unhappy with passive voice as many teachers are.  But I do agree that you should use it sparingly.  The main problem with passive voice is that it is an indirect way of speaking that can lead to ambiguity.  For example, if you say, “It is thought that this book has little to contribute to our understanding of Jesus,” my first question is, “It is thought by whom?”

Tone.  Avoid being too familiar in papers.  To that end, avoid contractions, avoid colloquialisms and slang, and avoid “I” unless it is necessary.

Grammar, Syntax, and Punctuation

Sentence Construction.  Please remember that every sentence must have a complete subject and predicate.  This may sound fairly elementary, but I frequently get papers with incomplete sentences.  Remember also that if you introduce a clause with a subordinating word, it cannot be the main clause.  For example, the following is not a sentence: “Because of the terrible weather and the flooded roads, together with the inexperience of the driver and the carelessness of his passengers.”  Similarly, a clause introduced with words like “when” and “where” cannot be the main clause of a sentence.

Sentences must have finite verbs.  A participle cannot serve as the main verb.  So for example, the second of the following sentences is not a sentence: “There were three reasons for this.  The first being that all the books useful for that subject had already been taken out of the library.”  The writer thinks that “being” is the main verb here, but it cannot be, since it is a present participle.

Commas.  The use of commas is one of the most problematic aspects of writing.  While some of the use of commas is a matter of style, with no hard-and-fact rules governing it, some is not optional.  For example, do not put a comma between the subject and the predicate unless there is some reason for doing so.  The following is wrong: “The boy with the red hair who sat in the third row, was able to answer all of the questions.”  This comma separates “boy,” the subject, from “was,” the verb.  On the other hand, if you use the boy’s name in apposition to the noun “boy,” you need commas on both sides of his name; for example, “The boy, John, was able to answer the questions.”  Remember, a noun in apposition needs commas before and after it.

Relative clauses are enclosed by commas when they are not necessary for the definition of what they modify and are not enclosed by commas when they are necessary.  If I write, “The juror who is wearing a suit seems skeptical,” the relative clause “who wore a suit” is necessary for defining which juror I mean, since it is not within commas.  If I write, “The juror, who is wearing a suit, seems skeptical,” the relative clause is additional information about the juror that is not necessary for knowing which one I mean.  Perhaps I have already indicated the juror about whom I am speaking.

Nouns in apposition follow the same rule.  For example, Charles Dickens wrote many books, so when I refer to one of them, I need the title to indicate which one I mean.  Thus, I should write, “Charles Dickens’s book Great Expectations is a classic.”  However, if someone wrote only one book, there is no question which one I am referring to, so I should write, “John Doe’s book, Life at Holy Cross, is informative.”

Whenever two independent clauses are juxtaposed, one can use a semicolon to divide them, or the second one can be introduced by the conjunctions “and” or “but.”  If the second clause is not really independent because its subject is not expressed and is the same as that of the first clause, no comma should be used; for example, “Jack was very disappointed and made his feelings known.”

When an adverbial phrase or clause introduces a sentence, you have the option of whether or not to separate it from the rest of the sentence by a comma.  If it is a short phrase, you might omit it, and if it is a long phrase you might use it.  For example:  “After that he stopped writing.”  “After he had spent a lot of time revising, he stopped writing.”

Cases. “I,” “he,” “she” are nominative case, while “me,” “him,” and “her” are objective case.  Nominative case is used for the subject of the sentence, while objective case is used as the object of the verb and of prepositions.  It is wrong to say, “That was a happy moment for John and I.”  You can see that by omitting “John” from the sentence: “That was a happy moment for I.”  This little test always works.

Periods.  The period comes after citation in parentheses, not before.  For example:  “John the baptizer appeared in the wilderness, proclaiming a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Mark 1:4).

Spaces. When using parentheses for citations, make sure to leave a space before the parenthesis.  For example: “Mark’s explanation of why Jesus uses parables is puzzling (4:10-12).”

Leave two spaces after the ends of sentences.

Quotations. Quotations are enclosed within double inverted commas.  Quotes within quotes are marked with single inverted commas.  For example: Mary said, “Dan ran into the room and yelled, ‘Everyone has to leave.’”

Block quotes are single-spaced and indented from the right and left margins.  Do not enclose them in quotation marks.  Quotes within the block quotes are enclosed in double quotation marks.

Quotation marks go outside periods and commas, and inside colons and semicolons.  For example:  “apostles,” and “apostles.”  But it is “apostles”; and “apostles”:

When you quote whole sentences, put a comma or a colon before the quotation, and capitalize the first word of the quotation.  If you integrate a quote into the syntax of your own sentence, do not capitalize and follow the proper punctuation for your sentence.  For example:  I spoke to him and knew that he was disappointed, because he described himself as “discouraged and disillusioned.”

Hyphens.  A hyphen is not the same as a dash “–“.   Dashes are either two hyphens printed side-by-side (--) or an actual dash (–).

Misplaced Modifiers: Make sure that the modifier is near what it modifies.  Not: “I watched stars falling through the telescope.”  Rather, say something like, “Using a telescope, I watched the stars falling.”

Tenses.  Be consistent with tenses.  Do not begin a paper in the present tense, move to the past, and then shift back to the present, unless of course there is some reason to do so.  In biblical studies it is common practice to relate historical events using the past tense, while using the present tense to convey the content of a text that speaks of historical events.  For example: “Nehemiah came to Judah in the fifth century B.C.E.  He was commissioned as governor of the province by the Persian emperor.  The book of Nehemiah contains Nehemiah’s memoirs.  There he tells us about his reforms.  In chapter 5, Nehemiah confronts the abuse of the peasants by the elite.”  Note that I shifted from past tense to present when I began to speak of the book of Nehemiah.

“Being that.”  Do not use the phrase “being that.”  Substitute something like “since.”

Participial Phrases.  Do not use dangling participial phrases, such as, “Looking carefully at the evidence, it is clear that the book is wrong.”  The problem here is that “looking” modifies nothing in the sentence.  The writer probably means that he or she is looking at the evidence, but he or she is not indicated in the sentence!  You could say, “Looking at this carefully, I came to the conclusion that he was wrong.”  Then “looking” modifies “I.”

However.  “However” is not a conjunction.  It cannot join two independent clauses.  The following sentence is not constructed properly: “He did not want to do it, however, he decided to do it anyway.”

Split Infinitives.  Avoid split infinitives.  Although these are becoming more common and are really accepted in many circles, they still grate on the ears (or eyes?) of some of us more old-fashioned folks.  So, do not say, “to better understand,” since that separates the “to” and “understand” of “to understand.”  Rather, say, “to understand better.”

Try not to end sentences with prepositions.

Spelling and Related Matters

“Israel,” not “Isreal.”

“anoint,” not “annoint.”

Take the time to learn how to spell “apocalypticism.”  We use it often in this field.

“Criterion” is singular; “criteria” is plural.

“Cannot” is one word.  It is not “can not.”

Be consistent with capitalization.  For example, do not have “temple” in one place and “Temple” in another.  With some words, especially when writing on religious topics, capitalization is optional, but you need to decide on a style and stick to it.

Avoid Contractions.

Underline or italicize foreign words.

Formats

The best guide for format in this field is The SBL Handbook of Style for Ancient Near Eastern, Biblical, and Early Christian Studies (Edited by Patrick Alexander, John Kutsko, et. al.  Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1999).  It is in the reference section of Dinand Library.

When citing biblical, apocryphal, and other ancient texts, do not cite the text by page number.  Rather, use the following format.  When chapter or chapter and verse are included, abbreviate the name of the book: “Matt 13; Matt 13:1.”  Otherwise, spell out the full name of the book.

I accept any established format for citations, bibliographies, and footnotes (or endnotes).  I prefer the Chicago Manual of Style (now in its fifteenth edition), but I do not insist on it.  There is help for this on the library web site at http://www.holycross.edu/departments/library/website/citationguidesdatabases.html.  See also the online resources listed at the beginning of this document.

Secondary Sources

Please consult my document posted on the web site entitled “Bibliographical Aids for Writing Papers on the Bible.”

Always consult the Anchor Bible Dictionary.  Make sure you look at Bibliographical Aids.  Think about looking for appropriate articles.

Do not believe that everything in print is either of high quality or necessarily correct.  Beware of outdated and pietistic sources.  Do not pad bibliographies with sources you have not consulted.

Use sources critically.  To the extent that you find it possible given your general knowledge and the specific knowledge you have attained in this field, engage in some “give-and-take” with the sources, assessing their arguments and weighing their evidence.

Notes.  Either footnotes, endnotes, or in-text citations are all acceptable.  Use an established format.  Superscripted footnote numbers follow punctuation:  apostles,¹ “Jesus said, ‘Love your neighbor.’”¹  Avoid footnote markers within sentences.  Put them at the end.

General Instructions

Make sure the paper is securely fastened together, preferably with staples.  Do not rely on paper clips, for example.

All papers must have a title and a bibliography.  Please use a cover sheet with the title, your name, the date the paper is due, and your P.O. Box number.

Make sure that you number your pages.

You are responsible for having a backup copy of your paper, electronic, hardcopy, or both.  I have never yet lost a paper, but there is always a first time.

I will use some copy-editing symbols in grading papers.  You can find an explanation of such symbols in many places, including good dictionaries.