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Teacher Resources
The following article, written by Professor Alan Dundes
of Berkeley University, appeared in the 1968 book Every Man His
Way
THE NUMBER THREE IN AMERICAN CULTURE
Students undertaking professional training in anthropology are
rarely, if ever, required to formally study their own cultures.
They must demonstrate competence in various topics and areas, but
these do not normally include materials from their own cultures.
They may be told that the identification and careful delineation
of native categories may be crucial to a fuller understanding of
that culture which they investigate, but their own native categories,
the identification of which is equally important for an understanding
of another culture, may not be considered at all. With our present
knowledge of the cultural relativity of perception and cognition,
it seems clear that students of anthropology should be encouraged
to analyze their own native categories with the same care and methodological
rigor that is demanded of them in their fieldwork in other cultures.
If the reduction of ethnocentric bias is truly an ideal of anthropological
scholarship, then anthropologists should go into the field with
as comprehensive an understanding of the nature of their own culture
as possible.
This essay, appearing for the first time in this volume, is an
attempt to describe just one native category in American culture.
The category concerns the number three in various forms; tripartition,
trebling, and others. It will be shown that this folk cognitive
category pervades not only virtually every aspect of American life,
but also a good many of the supposedly objectively and empirically
derived analytical categories. In other words, some of our allegedly
scientific categories turn out to be nothing but culturally relative
folk categories in disguise.
"Nothing is as difficult to see as the obvious."
Bronislaw Malinowski, A Scientific Theory of Culture.
Ever since the publication of H. Usener's monograph in 1903, no
ne has questioned the importance of the number three in Greek and
Roman culture. Subsequent investigations of classical literature,
law, and medicine (Göbel, Goudy, Tavenner) have served only
to confirm the pattern. More recent scholarship (Deonna, Dumézil)
has demonstrated the existence of the pattern in most of Western
civilization and has suggested it may be a characteristic of Indo-European
culture. Some of the more convincing evidence is provided by mythology
and, more specifically, by the widespread occurrence of triads of
deities. Typical examples would be the Babylonian Ea, Anu, and Enil,
and the Hindu Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Also pertinent is the widespread
distribution of single gods with three heads (Kirfel). However,
relatively few of the numerous studies of the Number three have
concerned themselves with the "three-determinism" of contemporary
thought.
In a valuable study which appeared polygenetically the same year
as Usener's, Raimund Müller suggests that modern European culture
is just as three-oriented as classical culture was. Unfortunately,
because Müller's essay was published as a somewhat obscure
graduate exercise program, it has had little influence. As for American
culture in particular, only one of the studies made by classicists
and Indo-Europeanists (Lease) and some of the latest of a long line
of overtly Christian treatises seeking to reveal the presence of
the Trinity in nature (e.g. Strand) have documented in any detail
that the number three is of ritual importance in the United States.
One should realize that three is not a universal pattern number.
There are several pattern numbers, each with its own distribution.
The majority of American Indian cultures have four as their ritual
or sacred number. Sometimes a member of Euro-American culture is
surprised or amused at the American Indian's obvious cultural insistence
upon fourfold repetition. Parsons (1916:596) remarked on the "obsessive
character" of the Zuni use of four. Earlier, Buckland (1895:96)
had mistakenly thought that all American Indians had four as their
ritual number, but he was unaware of the ritual five among numerous
tribes in western North America (Jacobs, 1959:224-28; Lowie, 1925:578).
The occurrence of five may be of considerable antiquity. Of course,
American Indians are not particularly bothered by what appears to
us as an exaggerated use of four or five repetitions, just as we
are not irritated by our own equally persistent use of threefold
repetitions.
It should also be noted that three is not the only pattern number
in American Culture. In fact, there is clearly a plurality of pattern
numbers---two, seven, and twelve are three obvious examples.
Certainly, philosophical dualism is very much a part of American
culture and individuals do dichotomize. Common polarities include:
life/death, body/soul, and male/female. Indeed, although Lease (1919:72,
n.2) suggests that the primary divisions of the human arm and leg,
not to mention the finger tend to support trichotomic thinking,
the anatomical datum would appear to reinforce "two" rather
than "three." There are two sexes, two ears, eyes, nostrils,
arms, legs and so forth. These universally recognized pairs would
help to explain why dualism is worldwide. Whether one uses such
criteria as dual social organization (e.g., in moiety systems) or
some variation of a "self-other" or "us-them"
dichotomy (e.g., as in exogamy), there seems little doubt that "two"
is more widely distributed in the world than "three."
In American culture one finds quite frequently that there are alternative
classification schemes: One binary and one trinary. The present
thesis is not that the number three is the only numerical native
category in American culture, but rather that it is the predominant
one.
The following general statements about the nature of trichotomy
may be of interest. (1) Often three appears to be an absolute limit;
there are three terms or three categories and no more. In folk speech
one can give three cheers for someone, but not two or four. (And
each cheer may consist of "Hip, Hip, Hooray.") The starter
for a race will say "One, two, three, go." He will not
count to two or four. (Cf. the three commands "On your mark,
get set, go.) The alphabet is referred to as the ABC's and in the
common folk simile, something is as easy as ABC; one does not speak
of learning his AB's or his ABCD's. (2) If there are more than three
terms, the additional ones will not infrequently be defined primarily
in terms of one of the three basic terms, usually one of the extremes.
For example, in shirt sizes, one finds small, medium, and large.
The size "extra-large" is certainly linguistically and
very probably conceptually derived form "large," rather
than possessing separate individual status. (3) One source of trichotomies
consists of positions located in reference to some initial point.
In golf one tries to shoot par for the course. He may, however,
shoot "under" par or "over" par. In music, the
point of reference from which "middle C," which serves,
for example, as a midpoint between the base and treble clefs in
addition to functioning as a point of reference from which to describe
voice ranges (e.g., "two octaves above middle C"). (4)
On the other hand, a third term may be the result of splitting a
polarity. If A and B represent two extremes, then a trichotomy may
be achieved by establishing their average, median, or mean as a
midpoint. Or if "early" and "late" represented
extremes in describing arrivals and departures, then "on time"
would presumably be the midpoint. Obviously, in some instances,
it is difficult to say whether the midpoint or the extremes came
first. (5) Another common means of trichotomy formation is the merging
or combining of two terms such that one has A, B, and AB. In Robert's
Rules of Order it is started that "an amendment may be in any
of the following forms: (a) to insert or add, (b) to strike out,
or (c) to strike out and insert." In theory, any polarity can
be converted to a trichotomy by this or the immediately preceding
principle. Moreover, it is decidedly easier to move from two to
three (cf. Usener, 1903:323) than from three to two. The majority
of the most common trichotomic schemes in American culture could
not easily be put into a dichotomic mold. (6) The strength of the
trichotomic tendency is indicated in part by its "repetition
compulsion." In a considerable number of tripartite schemes,
each of the three units in question may itself be divided into three
parts. Each of these parts may in turn be broken down into three
subdivisions and so on almost ad infinitum. (7) A final generalization
concerns the special case of the triune or three-in-one. In some
trichotomies the three subdivisions are not separate and independent;
instead they are part of a whole. The doctrine of the Trinity as
opposed to a doctrine of tritheism illustrates this form of trichotomy.
We may now turn to specific examples of trichotomy in American culture.
One of the very best sources for the study of native categories
is folklore. Folklore, consisting as it does of native documents
or autobiographical ethnography, is prime data for investigations
of cognitive patterning. A number of scholarly studies have described
the frequent occurrence of "three" in European folklore
(e.g., Lehmann, Müller) and indeed the overwhelming consistency
of trifold repetition in both classical and modern European folklore
led the distinguished Danish folklorist Axel Olrik to claim that
the "law of three" was one of the fundamental epic laws
governing the composition of folk narrative. There has also been
a Christian-anthropological treatise (Seifert) that has sought to
demonstrate threeness as a manifestation of the trinity in the myths
of primitive peoples. This is questionable, but certainly in Euro-American
folktales there are three brothers, three wishes, three magic objects,
and often a three-day interval of waiting or fighting. In jokes,
which are the modern equivalents of märchen (fairy tales),
there are commonly three principals: an Englishman, an Irishman,
and a Scotchman; a minister, a priest, and a rabbi; or a blonde,
a brunette, and a redhead. Structurally, there are usually three
action sequences in such jokes. Three is equally popular in other
genres of American folklore.
In American folksongs there are numerous examples of trebling and
it is doubtful whether many singers are fully conscious of it. For
example, in many songs the verse consists of a line which is repeated
three times before being followed by a final line. Typical illustrations
include: "John Brown's body lies a moulderin' in the grave...but
his soul goes marching on"; "John Brown had a little Indian...
one little Indian boy"; "Polly put the kettle on...we'll
all have tea"; "Go tell Aunt Rhody (Nancy)...her old grey
goose is dead"; "Lost my partner, what'll I do?...skip
to my Lou, my darlin'"; etc. In other instances, a word or
phrase is thrice repeated: "Row, row, row your boat,"
"Mary had a little lamb, little lamb, little lamb," "Do
you know the muffin man, the muffin man, the muffin man?" "Did
you ever see a lassie, a lassie, a lassie?" and such other
favorites as "Buffalo gals, won't you come out tonight?"
"Joshua fit the battle of Jericho," "Here we go round
the mulberry bush," and "London Bridge is falling down,"
to list just a few.
The number three also figures prominently in American superstitions.
Sometimes, it signifies luck: "Third time's a charm."
Sometimes it is the opposite: "Three times a bridesmaid, never
a bride," "Three on a match is bad luck," and "Going
down for the third time" (i.e., drowning). Riddles as well
as superstitions may reflect triadic from. The celebrated riddle
of the Sphinx, which is very old and very widely distributed, is
a particularly noteworthy, example, especially if one considers
that, in a way, the riddle constitutes a folk definition of man:
"It first walks on four legs, then on two, then on three legs."
In many versions the "morning, noon, and night" time trichotomy
is used as a metaphor of the "three" ages of man, ""Four
legs in the morning, two legs at noon, three legs at night"---making
the tripartite categorization even more explicit.
The pattern is also found in traditional games. In the popular parlor
game Tick-Tack-Toe, whose title itself is trinary, the object of
the game is to get three x's or ciphers in a row. In card games,
three of a kind or sequential runs of at least three cards may be
important. In games such as "Hearts," where each individual
passes cards to his neighbor, the number passed is three. The playing
cards themselves are of interest. While there are four suits (possibly
a reflection of a Chinese origin), there are but three face cards
in American decks of cards. When it is realized that some European
sets have four face cards, and further that the particular face
cards in American culture are a King, Queen, and Jack, a secular
trio of father, mother, and son, the three penchant becomes more
apparent.
Threeness also occurs in team games or sports. In the "national
pastime" threes abound. In baseball there are nine players;
nine innings; three outs; three strikes; first, second, and third
base, left, center, and right field; and often three umpires. Moreover,
the fact that in professional baseball both batting and fielding
averages are calculated to three places, pitching "earned run
averages" (ERA) consist of three digits, and box scores commonly
list "runs, hits, and errors" does tend to suggest a ternary
pattern. While the patterning is not perfect (a walk is earned by
four balls), three does seem to be the prevailing number. Batters
are measured in part by the number of RBI's (runs batted in) and
whether or not they hit over .300. (Is it just a coincidence that
this particular percentage is singled out?)
Other sports in the United States reveal similar patterning. In
football, the "line" consists of seven men (another magic
number), but is divided into a left side, center, and right side
in common parlance. The left and right sides consist of three slots:
guard, tackle, and end. The backfield has four men, but only three
linguistic slots: quarterback, halfback and fullback. (This is analogous
to the front, side, and back yards of a house, in that four areas
are labeled with just three basic designatory terms, and perhaps
analogous also to the three instruments found in the normal form
of the string quartet: violins, viola, and cello.) Obviously, there
are other number patterns present in football. Ten yards is the
immediate objective and there are four attempts (downs) permitted
to attain this goal. However, a field goal is three points and a
touchdown is six points.
In professional boxing, bouts take place in a "ring"
which is surrounded by three strands of rope. Rounds consist of
three minutes of fighting. A comparison of American and European
practices once again reveals the American bias. Whereas fights in
Great Britain and most of continental Europe are judged by the referee
and two judges, i.e., by three votes.
One could find many additional examples from other American sports,
but perhaps most striking are the following points. In many instances,
only the first three participants to finish a race receive official
recognition. Similarly, in horseracing the three possibilities are
win, place, and show. Noteworthy also is the fact that in many American
games there is more than the binary possibility of winning or losing.
The third alternative, that is, drawing or tying, allows the choices
"win, lose, or draw," which is consistent with trichotomic
patterning. Even the partisan cheers at athletic events often consist
of three words, e.g., fight team fight, hold that line, get the
ball.
Another form of spectacle, the circus, though not strictly speaking
a game, provides a rather striking example of trichotomy. Besides
the obvious difference between a one-ring show and a three-ring
circus, the latter being an excellent example of the "three-in-one"
type of trichotomy, among American circus performers there has historically
been a burning desire to do things in triplicate. Specifically,
there were attempts to "turn a triple somersault from a trapeze
bar to a catcher's hands as a grand finale of the flying return
act" and to "do a triple from a springboard" (E.C.
May, 1932:249). The goal, though culturally appealing, was extremely
difficult physically and a host of would-be triplers actually broke
their necks in attempting this feat (E.C. May, 1932:255). The existence
of trebling in circus acts and of the "three-in-one" tent
show may serve to illustrate how a particular widespread pattern
of culture can be manifested in a single aspect of culture, an aspect
which might easily be overlooked.
Another revealing aspect of folk culture concerns naming conventions.
Perhaps the trichotomy here is attributable in part to the theory
and methodology of logical definition itself. In formal definitions,
the trinary criteria are term, genus and differentia. In any event,
scientific names for plants and animals are often in trinomial form,
giving genus, species, and variety. In American culture most individuals
have three names, any of which may be converted into initials: John
Fitzgerald Kennedy to JFK. Most formal documents have space for
three names and individuals with only two names may be obliged to
indicate "none" or n.m.i. (no middle initial) in the middle
name slot. Significantly, it is the last or third name which is
the principal identifier. The clumsiness of this system has led
to the practice on many forms of requesting that the last name be
given first. Organizations as well as individuals have three word
names. Typical American Organizations' titles include: American
Anthropological Association (AAA), American Medical Association
(AMA), and Ku Klux Klan (KKK). In some instances, the organization's
title has more than three words, but there are still only three
initials: Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR), Parents and
Teachers Association (PTA), and Congress of Industrial Organizations
(CIO). In addition to individuals and organizations, there are the
names of projects: Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), of chemical
products: trinitrotoluene (TNT), and of tests: Thematic Apperception
Test (TAT). The names of the three major television networks are:
ABC, CBS, and NBC. In fact, often the set of three initials has
virtually replaced the words for which they stand: COD, DNA, DOA,
FBI, FOB, GOP, LSD, MGM, RIP, rpm, TKO, USO, and VIP. the item may
be considered a local family expression such as FHB (family hold
back), a command directing family members to refrain from taking
too much food so that guests will have enough. However, most of
the items are national in scope, as in the case of the common abbreviation
for the whole country: USA. The preeminence of the three letter
gestalt is also suggested by SOS, in which the Morse Code signals
consist of three dots, three dashes, and three dots.
A final bit of folkloristic evidence for the existence of a trichotomic
pattern in American culture is provided by folk speech. The model
for America's rhetorical heritage includes such triple constructions
as veni, vidi, vici (and it was surely no accident that all Gaul
was divided into three parts) or liberté, égalité,
fraternité. Small wonder that American political style favors:
life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; a government of the
people, by the people, and for the people. Political slogans likewise
may consist of three words: I Like Ike; We Shall Overcome. But nonpolitical
folk expressions are equally three-structured: beg, borrow, or steal;
bell, book, and candle; blood, sweat, and tears; cool, calm, and
collected; fat, dumb, and happy; hither, thither, and yon; hook,
line, and sinker; hop, skip, and jump; lock, stock, and barrel;
me, myself, and I; men, women, and children; ready, willing, and
able; signed, sealed, and delivered; tall, dark, and handsome; Tom,
Dick, and Harry; and wine, women, and song. Railroad crossing signs
warn motorists to "stop, look, and listen."
Advertising clichés manifest the same structure. A skin
cream advertisement maintains: "she's lovely, she's engaged,
she uses Pond's"; the breakfast cereal Rice Krispies is represented
by "Snap, Crackle, and Pop." Commercial products such
as SOS scouring pads and 3-in-1 oil use three in their names, while
others claim to have an essential three-initial ingredient (Shell
gasoline has TCP) or to operate on three levels (such as fighting
headaches three ways). Superman, a mass media folk hero for American
children, is introduced in threes: "Faster than a speeding
bullet, more powerful than a locomotive, able to leap tall buildings
at a single bound. It's a bird! It's a plane! It's Superman!"
Superman's own formula is "Up, up, and away."
Many American verbal rituals are in the same tradition. The various
countdowns prior to the starting point of events may be in threes:
ready, set, go; or ready, aim, fire. The auctioneering phrase---going
once, going twice, sold; or going, going, gone---is an example.
There is also the barker's cry: "Hurry, hurry, hurry,"
often followed by "Step right up." American judicial rituals
also provide illustrations. The cry of "hearye" or "oyez"
repeated three times is one, while the oath sworn by a witness is
another. A witness is worn by asking him to repeat "truth"
three times, as he must do when he swears to "tell the truth,
the whole truth, and nothing but the truth." Similarly, in
wedding ritual, there is the promise to "love, honor, and obey."
There are many more examples from American folk speech. Some are
in rhyme: "First is worst, second the same, but third is best
of all the game." Some are not: "A minute in your mouth,
an hour in you stomach, a lifetime on your hips"; or the Army
credo, one version of which directs, "If it moves, salute it!
If it doesn't move, pick it up! If you can't pick it up, paint it!"
Even more interesting is the American tendency to build triple constructions
from original single ones. Thus starting from "Those who can,
do" those who can't, teach; and those who can't teach, teach
teachers!" The same pattern is reflected in a popular American
leave- taking formula: "be good." The second stage: "If
you can't be good, be careful" is followed by the third: "If
you can't be careful, have fun" (or "name it after me").
It is not just in American folklore that the trichotomic and trebling
tendency is found. Almost every aspect of American culture is similarly
three-patterned. One may examine food, clothing, education, social
organization, religion, time, or any other aspect of American culture
and one will find abundant examples of trichotomy. Yet, most Americans
are unaware of the pervasiveness of this pattern. It might therefore
be worthwhile to observe a small portion of this patterning
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